Concept Mapping

General Reading

A good place to start learning about concept mapping is by doing some reading of the primary background articles. Here are some of the "classic" articles that are a good starting point:

• Trochim, W. (1989). An introduction to concept mapping for planning and evaluation. In W. Trochim (Ed.) A Special Issue of Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 1–16.

• Trochim, W. (1989). Concept mapping: Soft science or hard art? In W. Trochim (Ed.) A Special Issue of Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 87–110.

• Trochim, W. (1993). Reliability of concept mapping. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Dallas, Texas, November, 1993.

Web Page Introductions

There are two major websites that act as major resources on concept mapping:

Presentations

• Introduction to Concept Mapping — Presentation in San Diego, January 13, 2005.

• Trochim, W. (2013). Introduction to Concept Mapping: Mapping the Agenda for a Science of Team Science. Keynote Presentation at the First Annual Conference of the Science of Team Science (SciTS), Chicago, IL.

Papers

Many of the major papers are available on the web. The major references for concept mapping and pattern matching by the presenting author (with web location, where appropriate) are:

• Kane C, Trochim W, Bar H, Vaught A, Baker H, Khan M, Wagner R, Holmes K and Doyle JM (2025). Navigating the road ahead: using concept mapping to assess Clinical and Translational Science Award (CTSA) program goals. Frontiers in Public Health 13:1562191. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2025.1562191.

• Wutzke, S., Roberts, N., Willis, C., Best, A., Wilson, A., & Trochim, W. (2017). Setting strategy for system change: using concept mapping to prioritise national action for chronic disease prevention. Health Research Policy and Systems, 15:69. DOI 10.1186/s12961-017-0231-7.

• Trochim, W. M., & McLinden, D. (2017). Introduction to a special issue on concept mapping. Evaluation and Program Planning, 60, 166–175. doi:10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2016.10.006. This special issue marks the 25th anniversary of the methodology and includes the following articles:

  • Trochim, W. M., & McLinden, D. (2017). Introduction to a special issue on concept mapping. Evaluation and Program Planning, 60, 166–175.

  • Trochim, W. M. (2017). Hindsight is 20/20: Reflections on the evolution of concept mapping. Evaluation and Program Planning, 60, 176–185.

  • Donnelly, J. P. (2017). A systematic review of concept mapping dissertations. Evaluation and Program Planning, 60, 186–193.

  • Anderson, L. A., & Slonim, A. (2017). Perspectives on the strategic uses of concept mapping to address public health challenges. Evaluation and Program Planning, 60, 194–201.

  • Nabitz, U., van Randeraard-van der Zee, C., Kok, I., van Bon-Martens, M., & Severens, P. (2017). An overview of concept mapping in Dutch mental health care. Evaluation and Program Planning, 60, 202–212.

  • van Bon-Martens, M. J. H., van de Goor, I. A. M., & van Oers, H. A. M. (2017). Concept mapping as a method to enhance evidence-based public health. Evaluation and Program Planning, 60, 213–228.

  • Vaughn, L. M., Jones, J. R., Booth, E., & Burke, J. G. (2017). Concept mapping methodology and community-engaged research: A perfect pairing. Evaluation and Program Planning, 60, 229–237.

  • Stoyanov, S., Jablokow, K., Rosas, S. R., Wopereis, I. G. J. H., & Kirschner, P. A. (2017). Concept mapping—An effective method for identifying diversity and congruity in cognitive style. Evaluation and Program Planning, 60, 238–244.

  • Soellner, R., Lenartz, N., & Rudinger, G. (2017). Concept mapping as an approach for expert-guided model building: The example of health literacy. Evaluation and Program Planning, 60, 245–253.

  • Lich, K. H., Brown Urban, J., Frerichs, L., & Dave, G. (2017). Extending systems thinking in planning and evaluation using group concept mapping and system dynamics to tackle complex problems. Evaluation and Program Planning, 60, 254–264.

  • Rosas, S. R., & Ridings, J. W. (2017). The use of concept mapping in measurement development and evaluation: Application and future directions. Evaluation and Program Planning, 60, 265–276.

  • Orsi, R. (2017). Use of multiple cluster analysis methods to explore the validity of a community outcomes concept map. Evaluation and Program Planning, 60, 277–283.

  • Bar, H., & Mentch, L. (2017). R-CMap—An open-source software for concept mapping. Evaluation and Program Planning, 60, 284–292.

  • McLinden, D. (2017). And then the internet happened: Thoughts on the future of concept mapping. Evaluation and Program Planning, 60, 293–300.

• Falk-Krzesinski, H.J., Contractor, N., Fiore, S.M., Hall, K.L., Kane, C., Keyton, J., Klein, J., Spring, B., Stokols, D., & Trochim, W. (2011). Mapping a research agenda for the science of team science. Research Evaluation, 20, 143–156.

• Behfar, K. J., Mannix, E. A., Peterson, R. S., & Trochim, W. M. (2011). Conflict in small groups: The meaning and consequences of process conflict. Small Group Research, 42(2), 127–176.

• Falk-Krzesinski, H. J., Börner, K., Contractor, N., Cummings, J. N., Fiore, S. M., Hall, K. L., Keyton, J., Spring, B., Stokols, D., Trochim, W., & Uzzi, B. (2010). Advancing the science of team science. Clinical and Translational Sciences, 3(5), 263–266.

• Börner, K., Contractor, N., Falk-Krzesinski, H., Fiore, S.M., Hall, K., Keyton, J., Spring, B., Stokols, D., Trochim, W., & Uzzi, B. (2010). A multi-level systems perspective for the science of team science. Science Translational Medicine, 2(49), 49cm24.

• Kagan, J.M., Kane, M., Quinlan, K.M., Rosas, S., & Trochim, W.M.K. (2009). Developing a conceptual framework for an evaluation system for the NIAID HIV/AIDS clinical trials networks. Health Research Policy and Systems, 7:12.

• Stillman, F., Hoang, M., Linton, R., Ritthiphakdee, B., & Trochim, W. (2008). Mapping tobacco industry strategies in South East Asia for action planning and surveillance. Tobacco Control, 17(1), e1.

• Leischow, S. J., Best, A., Trochim, W. M., Clark, P. I., Gallagher, R. S., Marcus, S. E., & Matthews, E. (2008). Systems thinking to improve the public's health. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 35(2 Suppl 1), S196–S203.

• Massé, L. C., Moser, R. P., Stokols, D., Taylor, B. K., Marcus, S. E., Morgan, G. D., Hall, K.L., Croyle, R.T., & Trochim, W. (2008). Measuring collaboration and transdisciplinary integration in team science. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 35(2 Suppl 1), S151–S160.

• Trochim, W., Marcus, S.E., Massé, L.C., Moser, R.P., & Weld, P. (2008). The evaluation of large research initiatives: A participatory integrative mixed-methods approach. American Journal of Evaluation, 29(1), 8–28.

• Behfar, K., Peterson, R.S., Mannix, E.A., & Trochim, W. (2008). The critical role of conflict resolution in teams: A close look at the links between conflict type, conflict management strategies, and team outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 170–188.

• Robinson, J. M., & Trochim, W. (2007). An examination of community members', researchers', and health professionals' perceptions of barriers to minority participation in medical research: An application of concept mapping. Ethnicity and Health, 12(5), 521–539.

• Trochim, W., & Cabrera, D. (2005). The complexity of concept mapping. Emergence: Complexity and Organization, 7(1), 11–22.

• Trochim, W., & Kane, M. (2005). Concept mapping: An introduction to structured conceptualization in health care. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 17(3), 187–191.

• Baldwin, C.M., Kroesen, K., Trochim, W.M., & Bell, I.R. (2004). Complementary and conventional medicine: A concept map. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 4:2.

• Trochim, W., Milstein, B., Wood, B., Jackson, S., & Pressler, V. (2004). Setting objectives for community and systems change: An application of concept mapping for planning a statewide health improvement initiative. Health Promotion Practice, 5(1), 8–19.

• Trochim, W., Stillman, F., Clark, P., and Schmitt, C. (2003). Development of a model of the tobacco industry interference with tobacco control programs. Tobacco Control, 12, 140–147.

• Jackson, K. and Trochim, W. (2002). Concept mapping as an alternative approach for the analysis of open-ended survey responses. Organizational Research Methods, Vol. 5 No. 4, October, 307–336.

• McLinden, D. J. & Trochim, W.M.K. (1998). From puzzles to problems: Assessing the impact of education in a business context with concept mapping and pattern matching. In J. Phillips (Ed.), Evaluation Systems and Processes. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training and Development.

• McLinden, D. J. & Trochim, W.M.K. (1998). Getting to parallel: Assessing the return on expectations of training. Performance Improvement, 37, 8, 21–26.

• Witkin, B. and Trochim, W. (1997). Toward a synthesis of listening constructs: A concept map analysis. International Journal of Listening, 11, 69–87.

• Kolb, D. & Shepherd, D. (1997). Concept Mapping Organizational Cultures. Journal of Management Inquiry, 6(4), 282–295.

• Shern, D.L., Trochim, W. and LaComb, C.A. (1995). The use of concept mapping for assessing fidelity of model transfer: An example from psychiatric rehabilitation. Evaluation and Program Planning, 18, 2.

• Trochim, W. (1996). Criteria for evaluating graduate programs in evaluation. Evaluation News and Comment: The Magazine of the Australasian Evaluation Society, 5, 2, 54–57.

• Trochim, W., Cook, J. and Setze, R. (1994). Using concept mapping to develop a conceptual framework of staff's views of a supported employment program for persons with severe mental illness. Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 4, 766–775.

• Trochim, W. (1993). Reliability of concept mapping. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Dallas, Texas, November 1993.

• Trochim, W. and Cook, J. (1992). Pattern matching in theory-driven evaluation: A field example from psychiatric rehabilitation. In H. Chen and P.H. Rossi (Eds.) Using Theory to Improve Program and Policy Evaluations, Greenwood Press, New York, 49–69.

• Trochim, W. (Ed.) (1989). A Special Issue of Evaluation and Program Planning on Concept Mapping for Planning and Evaluation, Vol. 12. This is a full volume devoted to concept mapping. It includes the following articles:

  • Trochim, W. (1989). An introduction to concept mapping for planning and evaluation. Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 1, 1–16.

  • Caracelli, V. (1986). Structured conceptualization: A framework for interpreting evaluation results. Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 1, 45–52.

  • Cooksy, L. (1989). In the eye of the beholder: Relational and hierarchical structures in conceptualization. Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 1, 59–66.

  • Davis, J. (1989). Construct validity in measurement: A pattern matching approach. Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 1, 31–36.

  • Dumont, J. (1989). Validity of multidimensional scaling in the context of structured conceptualization. Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 1, 81–86.

  • Galvin, P.F. (1989). Concept mapping for planning and evaluation of a Big Brother/Big Sister program. Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 1, 53–58.

  • Keith, D. (1989). Refining concept maps: Methodological issues and an example. Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 1, 75–80.

  • Linton, R. (1989). Conceptualizing feminism: Clarifying social science concepts. Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 1, 25–30.

  • Mannes, M. (1989). Using concept mapping for planning the implementation of a social technology. Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 1, 67–74.

  • Marquart, J.M. (1989). A pattern matching approach to assess the construct validity of an evaluation instrument. Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 1, 37–44.

  • Trochim, W. (1989). Concept mapping: Soft science or hard art? Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 87–110.

• Trochim, W. (1989). Outcome pattern matching and program theory. Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 4, 355–366.

• Gurowitz, W.D., Trochim, W. and Kramer, H. (1988). A process for planning. The Journal of the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators, 25, 4, 226–235.

• Trochim, W. and Linton, R. (1986). Conceptualization for evaluation and planning. Evaluation and Program Planning, 9, 289–308.

• Trochim, W. (1985). Pattern matching, validity and conceptualization in program evaluation. Evaluation Review, 9, 5, 575–604.

Several of the more useful references for the statistical analysis in concept mapping include:

• Anderberg, M.R. (1973). Cluster analysis for applications. New York, NY: Academic Press.
• Davison, M.L. (1983). Multidimensional scaling. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.
• Everitt, B. (1980). Cluster analysis (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Halsted Press.
• Kruskal, J.B. and Wish, M. (1978). Multidimensional scaling. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
• Rosenberg, S. and Kim, M.P. (1975). The method of sorting as a data-gathering procedure in multivariate research. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 10, 489–502.
• Weller, S.C. and Romney, A.K. (1988). Systematic data collection. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

Whitepapers

These are unpublished lengthier pieces on technical or theoretical aspects of the Concept System and its process.

• Trochim, W. The evaluator as cartographer: Technology for mapping where we're going and where we've been. Keynote presentation to the 1999 Conference of the Oregon Program Evaluators Network, "Evaluation and Technology: Tools for the 21st Century," Portland, Oregon, October 8, 1999.

• Trochim, W. Developing an evaluation culture in international agriculture research. Invited address presented at the Cornell Institute on International Food, Agriculture and Development's (CIIFAD) workshop on the Assessment of International Agricultural Research Impact for Sustainable Development, Cornell University, Ithaca NY, June 16–19, 1991.

• Trochim, W. An internet-based concept mapping of accreditation standards for evaluation. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Atlanta, Georgia, November 1996.

• Trochim, W. Reliability of concept mapping. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Dallas, Texas, November 1993.

• Trochim, W., Dumont, J. and Campbell, J. (1993). Mapping mental health outcomes from the perspective of consumers/survivors. NASMHPD Technical Reports Series, National Association of Mental Health Program Directors, Alexandria VA.

• Trochim, W. (1993). Workforce competencies for psychosocial rehabilitation workers: A concept mapping project. Final report for the conference of the International Association of Psychosocial Rehabilitation Services, Albuquerque, New Mexico, November 11–12, 1993.